Salt in the Earth Sciences Basin Analysis and Applications

Salt Tectonics in Sedimentary Basins: Applications to Earth Sciences, Basin Analysis, Petroleum and Mineral Exploration aims to introduce the subject to a broad audience of earth scientists who are not specialists in salt tectonics but wish to acquire a broad, global knowledge and understand the basic  principles of evaporite deposition and  salt tectonics as applied to earth sciences,  basin analysis, petroleum and mineral exploration. The scope of this volume is to start from basic chemistry and physics principles discussing the mineralogy and fundamental chemical and physical properties of evaporites, then advance to the analysis of depositional environments in sedimentary basins worldwide where evaporites  have been deposited in the geological time.  

Volume highlights include:

- Objectives and contents that can fill the need of many earth science students and professionals, focusing on understanding basic salt tectonics principles in sedimentary basins worldwide and presenting its application to petroleum industry  
- Concepts about evaporite deposition and salt tectonics that have been developed in the past 50 years, paving the way for petroleum exploration in deep water provinces in many salt basins wordwide, such as the South Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico and the Mediterranean Sea
- Integration of classic salt basins, geological and geophysical datasets and their petroleum plays with plate tectonics concepts

Salt Tectonics in Sedimentary Basins is a valuable resource for undergraduate and graduate students, particularly young professionals working on basin analysis applied to petroleum exploration studies in Atlantic-type sedimentary basins. 

Table of Contents (Preliminary)

Preface

About the companion website xiii

Part 1 Chemical and Physical Properties of Evaporite Minerals

1 A brief history of salt and its influence on civilization  

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Pre-historical and biblical accounts of salt usage and its importance for humanity

1.3 Salt usage during the Middle Ages

1.4 Salt usage in the industrial world

1.5 Petroleum and mineral exploration in salt basins

2 Basic Concepts for the interpretation of evaporites

2.1 Sedimentary environments and salt deposition

2.2 Salt outcrops and early models of salt deposition and deformation

2.2.1 Zagros and Kavir regions, Iran

2.2.2 Alpine region, Europe

2.2.3 Atlas region, Africa

2.2.4 Mediterranean region

2.2.5 North America  (Paradox Basin)

2.2.6 Arabian Peninsula

2.3 Evaporite minerals in salt formations

2.3.1 Evaporitic carbonates and presalt microbialites

2.3.2 Sulfate minerals in evaporite rocks

2.3.3 Halide minerals in evaporite rocks

2.3.4 Borates, nitrates, silicates

2.3.5 The sulfate problem in marine evaporites

2.3.6 Rare minerals in evaporite sequences

2.3.7 Trace elements and isotopic considerations in salt basin analysis

2.4 Basic Chemistry of evaporite rock deposition from brines

2.4.1 Origin and migration of sedimentary brines

2.4.2 Geochemical  and physical properties of brines

2.4.3 Flow regimes and fluid mechanics of high salinity brines

2.5 Basic Physical properties of evaporite rocks

2.5.1 Composition and  density of evaporite minerals

2.5.2 Viscosity, thermal conductivity, melting point, magnetic susceptibility and other properties of evaporites

2.5.3 Electric log evaluation of evaporite sequences  (sonic, gamma ray, resistivity, density, etc.)

2.5.4 Basin Analysis Methods using seismic and electric log interpretation

2.6 Rheology of evaporite rocks

2.6.1 Strength of evaporite rocks under extensional and compressional stresses

2.6.2 Field and laboratory analysis of evaporite rock rheology

3 Mineral Analysis of  evaporite rocks

3.1 Common mineral types observed in drilling cores and salt mines

3.2 Petrographic analysis of evaporite minerals

3.3 Other methods of analysis of evaporite minerals

Part 2 Sedimentary environments and tectonic analysis of salt basins  

4 Sedimentary environments and salt deposition and deformation models

4.1 Introduction to sedimentary basins:  depositional environments and salt deformation

4.1.1 Salt structures interpretation before Plate Tectonics

4.1.2 Early models of salt deformation and diapirism ir orogenies

4.1.3 Geological observations and models for understanding salt structures in global basins

4.1.4 Seismic reflection methods  to image simple and complex structures in sedimentary basins

4.2 Giant salt basins in the world

4.2.1 Introduction to giant salt basins in time and space

4.2.2 Characteristics of giant salt basins

4.3 Modern analogues of salt deposition

4.3.1 Introduction to ancient salt basins and their modern analogues

4.3.2 The Dead Sea

4.3.3 The Mediterranean evaporites in outcrops

4.3.4 The Caspian Sea and Kara-Bogaz

4.3.5 The Assal Lake in the Afar region

4.3.6 The East African rift lakes

4.3.7 The California lakes

4.3.8 The Persian Gulf

4.3.9 The Andean salt flats

4.4 Sedimentary environments associated with salt basins

4.1 Continental Settings and lacustrine evaporites

4.2 Marginal Marine settings and sabkhas

4.3 Platform evaporites

4.4 Deep Basin evaporites

4.5 Geological models for evaporite  deposition in giant salt basins

4.5.1 The Red Sea salt basin

4.5.2 The Mediterranean salt drilled in deep waters

4.5.3 Supercritical water models for salt deposition

4.5.4 Magmatic models associated with salt deposition

5 Salt Deposition and halokinesis in selected sedimentary basins

5.1 The Zechstein in the North German Basin and North Sea

5.2 The Louann salt in the Gulf of Mexico

5.3 The Hormuz salt in the Zagros region

5.4 The Aptian salt in the South Atlantic

5.5 The Miocene salt in the Mediterranean

5.6 The Miocene salt in the Red Sea

6 A retrospective of salt tectonics models

6.1 Early models of salt deposition and deformation before the industrial revolution

6.2 Scientific models and uniformitarianism

6.3 Salt tectonics models developed in compressional domains

6.4 Salt tectonics models developed in intracratonic basins and extensional domains

6.5 Physical and numerical models of salt tectonics structures

6.6 Modelling salt thermal effects for petroleum systems

6.7 Modern concepts related to salt tectonics based on integration of outcrop and 3-D seismic

6.8 Summary of salt tectonics structural styles in extensional and compressional domains

Part 3 Basin Analysis and salt tectonics of selected sedimentary basins 

7  Sedimentary basins and geophysical methods for the interpretation of evaporite sequences

7.1 Introduction to sedimentary basins and their petroleum systems related to salt tectonics

7.2 Seismic interpretation and well logs from petroliferous basins

7.3 Evaporite facies based on seismic and well logs

7.4 Source rock, seals, reservoir and traps in salt basins

7.5 Basic principles of exploratory play analysis in petroleum exploration

8 Analysis of Selected Salt Basins in the World

8.1 Introduction to basin analysis and case studies of petroliferous salt basins

(Stratigraphy, Tectono-sedimentary sequences, seismic expression of evaporites,  structures, petroleum exploration plays related to salt tectonics, examples of oil accumulations)

8.2 The North German salt basins

8.3 The Gulf of Mexico salt basins  

8.4 The Arabian Peninsula and the Zagros region salt basins

8.5 The Brazilian salt basins onshore

8.6 The Brazilian salt basins offshore

8.7 The West African salt basins

8.8 The North African salt basins

8.9 The North American salt basins

8.10 The Mediterranean salt basins

8.11 The East European salt basins

8.12 The Russian salt basins

8.13 The salt basins in China

Part 4 Plate tectonics and  geohistory of salt basins 

9 Plate tectonics concepts related to development of evaporite basins

9.1 Introduction to plate tectonics and lithospheric controls on development of salt basins

9.2 Wilson cycle and tectonic settings for the  development of salt basins

9.3 Evaporite basins developed in intracratonic settings

9.4 Evaporite basins developed in extensional settings

9.4.1 Continental breakup and architecture of rift salt basins

9.4.2 Subsidence and deep-water facies of rifts and young passive margins

9.4.3 Salt basins in areas outboard of major deltas

9.4.4 Shale tectonics in sedimentary basins

9.5 Evaporite basins developed in compressional settings

9.6 Evapotite basins developed in in strike-slip settings

9.7 Evaporite basins development  in space and time

9.7.1 Precambrian salt basins

9.7.2 Paleozoic salt basins

9.7.3  Mesozoic salt basins

9.7.4  Tertiary salt basins

10 Deep structure of evaporite basins

10.1 Introduction to the deep structure of rifts and continental margins

10.2 Evaporite basins related to rifting of the crust

10.3 Evaporite basins related to lithospheric flexure

10.4 Evaporite basins related to oceanic crust inception

10.5 Evaporite basins deformed by subduction processes

10.6 Evaporite basins deformed by strike-slip processes

Part 5 Petroleum and Mineral Exploration in evaporite basins

11 Introduction to Petroleum exploration in salt basins: methods and drilling challenges

11.1 Petroleum exploration in the Gulf of Mexico: autochthonous and allochthonous plays

11.2 Petroleum exploration in the North Sea

11.3. Petroleum exploration in the South Atlantic

11.4  Petroleum exploration in the Arabian Peninsula

11.5 Petroleum exploration in North Africa

11.6 Petroleum exploration in the Mediterranean region

12. Introduction to Mineral exploration in salt basins: methods and mining challenges

12.1 Exploration and mining of Na-bearing evaporite minerals

12.2 Exploration and mining of K-bearing evaporite minerals

12.3 Exploration and mining of Li-bearing  evaporite minerals

12.4 Exploration and mining of other  evaporite  minerals

12.5 Ore forming brines, geothermal systems and evaporites

12.6 Salt caverns for storage of nuclear waste and hydrocarbons

13 Engineering and drilling of salt formations

13.1 Drilling of salt formations and geological hazards

14 Concluding Remarks and future trends

15 References