Plant Biomass Derived Materials, 2 Volumes Sources, Extractions, and Applications

Comprehensive overview of materials derived from biomass, including extraction techniques, important building blocks, and a wide range of applications

Plant Biomass Derived Materials provides insights into the different sources and kinds of biomass and covers a variety of techniques to derive important building blocks from raw resources; after foundational knowledge is covered, the text continues to discuss a comprehensive list of materials and applications, ranging from nanomaterials, polymers, enzymes, dyes, and composites, to applications in energy, biomedical, water purification, aeronautics, automotive and food applications, and more.

Written by four highly qualified authors with significant experience in both industry and academia, Plant Biomass Derived Materials includes information on:

• Biomass and its relationship to the environment, chemistry of biomass, lignin and starch, and recent trends of cashew nutshell liquid in the field
• Plant biomass mucilage, plant based colorants, revival of sustainable fungal based natural pigments, and algal-based natural pigments for textiles
• Biorefinery from plant biomass (including a case study in sugarcane straw), forest and agricultural biomass, and manufacture of monomers and precursors
• Chemical routes for the transformation of bio-monomers into polymers and manufacture of polymer composites from plant fibers

Providing foundational knowledge on the subject and a wide array of specific applications of biomass, Plant Biomass Derived Materials is an essential resource for chemists, materials scientists, and all academics and professionals in fields that intersect with biomass: an abundant renewable resource used for many diverse purposes.

Preface xix

1 Biomass – An Environmental Concern 1
Deepak S. Khobragade

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Biomass as an Energy Source 4

1.3 The Environmental Concern of Biomass 6

1.4 Air Pollution 7

1.4.1 Gaseous Emissions 7

1.4.2 Dust 7

1.4.3 Biomass Ash (Bottom Ash) 7

1.4.4 Fly Ash 8

1.4.5 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning 8

1.5 Water Use and Water Pollution 8

1.6 Impact on Soil 9

1.7 Indoor Pollution 11

1.8 Deforestation and Land Degradation 11

1.9 Health Hazards 11

1.10 Non-respiratory Illness 11

1.10.1 In Children 11

1.10.1.1 Lower Birth Weight 11

1.10.1.2 Nutritional Deficiency 12

1.10.2 Respiratory Illness in Adults 12

1.10.2.1 Interstitial Lung Disease 12

1.10.2.2 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) 12

1.10.2.3 Tuberculosis 12

1.10.2.4 Lung Cancer 12

1.10.3 Non-respiratory Illness in Adults 13

1.10.3.1 Cardiovascular Disease 13

1.10.3.2 Cataracts 13

1.11 Safe Disposal of Biomass 13

1.12 The Bioeconomy of the Biomass Utilization 15

1.13 Biowaste-Derived Functional Materials 15

1.14 Conclusion 16

References 17

2 Chemistry of Biomass 23
Wagner M. Cavalini, Breno M. Jóia, Diego E. R. Gonzaga, Rogério Marchiosi, Osvaldo Ferrarese-Filho, and dos Santos, Wanderley D.

2.1 Introduction 23

2.2 Cellulose 25

2.3 Hemicellulose 26

2.3.1 Xylans 27

2.3.2 Mannans 27

2.3.3 Arabinogalactans 28

2.4 Pectin 28

2.4.1 Homogalacturonan 29

2.4.1.1 Rhamnogalacturonan I 29

2.4.1.2 Rhamnogalacturonan II 29

2.5 Lignin 30

2.5.1 Lignin Valorization 31

2.6 Reserve Compounds 31

2.6.1 Starch 31

2.6.2 Sucrose 32

2.6.3 Lipids 33

2.6.3.1 Fatty Acids 33

2.6.3.2 Triacylglycerols 34

2.7 Natural Compounds (Secondary Metabolites) 34

2.7.1 Terpenoids 35

2.7.2 Phenylpropanoids 35

2.7.3 Alkaloids 36

2.8 Conclusion 36

References 37

3 Lignin from Biomass − Sources, Extraction, and Application 43
Irwan Kurnia, Surachai Karnjanakom, and Guoqing Guan

3.1 Sources 43

3.2 Extraction 45

3.2.1 Alkaline Process 47

3.2.1.1 Sulfur Processes 47

3.2.1.2 Sulfur-Free Processes 48

3.2.2 Acidic Process 48

3.2.2.1 Concentrated Acid Process (Klason Process) 49

3.2.2.2 Dilute Acid Process 49

3.2.3 Solvent-Assisted Extraction Processes 49

3.2.3.1 Organosolv Process 49

3.2.3.2 Aldehyde-Assisted Process 49

3.2.3.3 GVL-Assisted Process 50

3.2.3.4 Ionic Liquid Process 50

3.2.3.5 Deep Eutectic Solvents Process 51

3.2.4 Physical-Assisted Extraction Processes 51

3.2.4.1 Milled-Wood Process 51

3.2.4.2 Microwave-Assisted Process 51

3.2.5 Enzymatic Process 52

3.3 Application 53

3.3.1 Lignin-Derived Nanomaterials 53

3.3.1.1 Biomedical Materials 54

3.3.1.2 Energy Storage Materials 55

3.4 Summary and Outlook 57

Acknowledgments 57

References 58

4 Starch from Biomass – Sources, Extraction, and Application 63
Abdelaziz Amir, Trache Djalal, Sahnoun Nassima, and Tarchoune A. Fouzi

4.1 Introduction 63

4.1.1 Starch Source 63

4.1.2 Root and Tuber Starch Sources 63

4.1.2.1 Potato 63

4.1.2.2 Sweet Potato 65

4.1.2.3 Cassava 67

4.1.2.4 Yam 69

4.1.3 Cereal Starch Sources 70

4.1.3.1 Wheat 70

4.1.3.2 Corn 72

4.1.3.3 Rice 73

4.1.3.4 Oats 74

4.1.3.5 Barley 75

4.1.4 Nonconventional Starch Sources 76

4.1.4.1 Legumes 76

4.1.4.2 Fruits 77

4.2 Starch Extraction 80

4.2.1 Milling Process and its Effect on Starch Structure 80

4.2.1.1 Dry Milling 80

4.2.1.2 Wet Milling 81

4.2.1.3 Effect of the Milling Process on Starch Structure 81

4.2.2 Examples of Starch Extraction from Different Sources 82

4.2.2.1 Extraction of Starch from Tubers 82

4.2.2.2 Extraction of Starch from Cereals and Pulses 83

4.2.3 Nonconventionnel Extraction Techniques 85

4.2.3.1 Ultrasound-assisted Milling 85

4.2.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Starch Extraction 85

4.2.3.3 Air-Classification Assisted Milling 86

4.2.3.4 Electrostatic Separation 86

4.2.3.5 Gluten Washing 87

4.3 Starch Applications 87

4.3.1 Medical Applications 87

4.3.1.1 Drug Delivery Systems 87

4.3.1.2 Surgical Sutures 88

4.3.1.3 Bone Fixation and Regeneration 88

4.3.1.4 Tissue Adhesion 89

4.3.2 Water Treatment 89

4.3.3 Agricultural Applications 90

4.3.4 Packaging Applications 93

4.3.5 Food Applications 94

4.4 Conclusions 95

References 96

5 Recent Trends of Cashew Nutshell Liquid: Extraction, Chemistry, and Applications 117
Sixberth Mlowe and James Mgaya

5.1 Introduction 117

5.2 Global Production of Cashew in the World 118

5.3 Extraction of CNSL 118

5.3.1 Thermal Extraction 118

5.3.2 Mechanical Extraction 119

5.3.3 Solvent Extraction 120

5.4 Isolation and the Chemistry of Major Components of CNSL 120

5.4.1 Isolation of the Components of Natural CNSL 121

5.4.2 Isolation of the Components of Technical CNSL 122

5.5 Recent Developments in the Chemical Transformation and Uses of Cashew Nutshell Liquid 123

5.5.1 Pharmaceutical Drugs from Cardanol 123

5.5.2 Anthraquinone-Based Dyes from Anacardic Acid 125

5.5.3 CNSL-Based UV Absorbers 126

5.5.4 CNSL in Preparation of Bioactive Nanocarriers 127

5.5.5 CNSL as a Green Catalyst 127

5.5.6 CNSL-Derived Bifunctional Chemicals 128

5.5.7 CNSL-Based Flame Retardants 129

5.5.8 Use of Cashew Nutshell Liquid in the Synthesis of Nanomaterials 130

5.5.9 Use of Cashew Nutshell for Decontamination of Polluted Environment 131

5.5.10 Use of CNSL for Preparation of Resins, Adhesives, and Coatings 133

5.6 Conclusions 134

Acknowledgment 134

References 134

6 Plant Biomass Seed and Root Mucilage: Extraction and Properties 141
Mohsin A. Raza, Paul D. Hallett, and Waheed Afzal

6.1 Introduction 141

6.2 Extraction and Preparation Methods 144

6.2.1 Mucilage Extraction and Preparation 144

6.2.2 Other Mucilage Extraction Methods 144

6.2.3 Model Compounds Preparation 145

6.2.4 Density and Viscosity Measurements 145

6.3 Results and Discussion 146

6.3.1 Density 146

6.3.2 Viscosity 149

6.3.3 Model Compounds 152

6.4 Conclusion 156

References 157

7 Plant-Based Colorants: Isolation and Application 159
Vandana Bhandari, Pratikhya Badanayak, and Seiko Jose

7.1 Introduction 159

7.2 Classification of Natural Colorants 160

7.2.1 Classification Based on the Sources of Colorants 160

7.2.1.1 Plant-Based Natural Colorants 160

7.2.1.2 Colorant Obtained from Animal Sources 162

7.2.1.3 Mineral-Based Natural Colorants 162

7.2.1.4 Microbial and Fungal Origin 163

7.2.2 Classification on the Basis of Chemical Constituents Present 163

7.2.2.1 Indigoid Dyes 163

7.2.2.2 Anthraquinone Dyes 164

7.2.2.3 Naphthoquinone Dyes 164

7.2.2.4 Flavonoid Dyes 165

7.2.2.5 Carotenoid Dyes 165

7.2.2.6 Tannin-Based Dyes 165

7.2.3 Classification on the Basis of Colors Obtained 165

7.2.3.1 Natural Yellow Dyes 165

7.2.3.2 Natural Red Dyes 165

7.2.3.3 Natural Blue Dyes 166

7.2.3.4 Natural Black Dyes 166

7.2.3.5 Natural Brown Dyes 166

7.2.4 Classification on the Basis of Methods of Applications 166

7.3 Extraction Methods of Naturally Occurring Colorants 167

7.3.1 Conventional/Traditional Methods 167

7.3.1.1 Aqueous Extraction 167

7.3.1.2 Nonaqueous Extraction 168

7.3.2 New Innovative/Modern Methods 169

7.3.2.1 Radiation-Based Extraction (Gamma, Plasma, Microwave, Ultraviolet, and Ultrasonic Radiation) 169

7.3.2.2 Gamma Radiation 170

7.3.2.3 Ultraviolet Radiation 170

7.3.2.4 Ultrasonic Radiation 170

7.3.2.5 Supercritical Extraction 170

7.3.2.6 Enzymatic Method 171

7.4 Mordanting 171

7.4.1 Metal Salts Mordants 172

7.4.2 Oil Mordants 172

7.4.3 Tannins 172

7.5 Mordanting Methods 173

7.6 Functional Properties of Natural Colorants 173

7.6.1 Antimicrobial Property 173

7.6.2 Deodorant Properties of Natural Dyes 175

7.6.3 UV-Protection Property of Natural Dyes 175

7.6.4 Insect-Repellent Properties of Natural Dyes 176

7.7 Fastness Properties of Natural Dyes 176

7.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Natural Dyes 177

7.8.1 Advantages 177

7.8.2 Disadvantages 178

7.9 Conclusion 178

References 179

8 Revival of Sustainable Fungal-Based Natural Pigments 189
Shahid Adeel, Amna Naseer, Bisma, Fazal-ur-Rehman, Noman Habib, and Atya Hassan

8.1 Introduction 189

8.2 Classification of Natural Dyes Based on Sources 190

8.3 Fungal-Based Dyes and Pigments 190

8.4 Classification of Fungal Pigments 190

8.4.1 Species of the Trichocomaceae Family Producing Pigments 191

8.4.1.1 Aspergillus 191

8.4.1.2 Penicillium 193

8.4.1.3 Talaromyces Species 194

8.4.2 Species of the Monascaceae Family Producing Pigments 196

8.4.2.1 Monascus purpureus 196

8.4.3 Species of the Nectriaceae Family Producing Pigments 198

8.4.3.1 Fusarium oxysporum 198

8.4.3.2 Fusarium graminearum 199

8.4.3.3 Fusarium fujikuroi 201

8.4.4 Species of the Hypocreaceae Family Producing Pigments 202

8.4.4.1 Trichoderma harzianum 202

8.4.4.2 Trichoderma spirale 204

8.4.5 Species of the Pleosporaceae Family Producing Pigments 205

8.4.5.1 Pleosporaceae spp. (Alternaria, Curvularia, and Drechslera) 205

8.5 Conclusion 207

References 207

9 Modern Approach Toward Algal-Based Natural Pigments for Textiles 213
Mahwish Salman, Shahid Adeel, Mehwish Naseer, Muhammad Zulqurnain Haider, and Fozia Anjum

9.1 Introduction 213

9.1.1 Bio-Pigments 216

9.2 Diversity of Bio-Pigments Present in Algae 216

9.2.1 Chlorophyll 217

9.2.2 Carotenoids 218

9.2.3 Phycobilisomes 218

9.2.4 Phycobilins 219

9.2.5 Phycocyanin 219

9.2.6 Phycoerythrin 220

9.3 Extraction Methods of Bio-Pigments 220

9.4 Conventional Extraction Methods 220

9.4.1 Classic Extraction 220

9.4.1.1 Solvent-Based Extraction 220

9.4.1.2 Thermal Treatment 221

9.4.1.3 Freeze-Thaw Method 221

9.4.1.4 Enzymatic Extraction 221

9.4.2 Modern Extraction Methods 222

9.4.2.1 Pressurized Systems 222

9.4.2.2 Wave-Energy-Based Cell Disruption 222

9.4.2.3 Cell Milking 224

9.4.2.4 Electroextraction 224

9.4.2.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 225

9.4.3 Novel Extraction Methodologies 225

9.4.3.1 Laser 226

9.4.3.2 Hydrodynamic Cavitation 226

9.4.3.3 High Voltage Electrical Discharge (HVED) 226

9.4.3.4 Ohmic Heating (OH) 226

9.5 Algal-Based Natural Dyes 227

9.6 Bio-Pigments in the Textile Industry 229

9.7 Utilization of Algal-Based Natural Dyes in Different Industries 230

9.8 Future Prospective of Algal-Based Bio-Pigments 231

9.9 Conclusion 232

References 233

10 Biorefinery from Plant Biomass: A Case Study on Sugarcane Straw 243
Fahriya P. Sari, Nissa N. Solihat, Nur I. W. Azelee, and Widya Fatriasari

10.1 Introduction 243

10.2 Biorefinery Concept and Current Trend 245

10.3 Biorefinery Concepts for Sugarcane Straw Valorization 250

10.3.1 Cellulose-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 250

10.3.1.1 Bioethanol 250

10.3.1.2 Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) and Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC) 253

10.3.1.3 Biomethane 253

10.3.1.4 Biohydrogen 254

10.3.2 Hemicellulose-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 254

10.3.2.1 Xylose and Xylooligosaccharides Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 258

10.3.2.2 Xylitol Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 258

10.3.2.3 Furfural Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 259

10.3.2.4 Alcohols and Biogas Derived from Hemicellulosic Sugarcane Straw 259

10.3.3 Lignin-Derived Bioproducts (Isolation, Characterization, Derivative Products) 259

10.3.4 Other Components (Extractives and Ash) Derived Bioproducts 260

10.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives 262

10.5 Conclusion 263

Acknowledgment 263

References 263

11 Forest and Agricultural Biomass 271
Mohd H. Mohamad Amini

11.1 Introduction 271

11.2 Forest Sources 272

11.2.1 Virgin and Natural Forest 272

11.2.1.1 Hardwood 273

11.2.1.2 Softwood 273

11.3 Plantation Forest 274

11.3.1 Timber Species 275

11.3.1.1 Acacia mangium 275

11.3.1.2 Rubber Tree 276

11.3.1.3 Pinus radiata 276

11.3.1.4 Tectona grandis 276

11.3.2 Non-timber Species 276

11.3.2.1 Bamboo 277

11.3.2.2 Jute and Kenaf 278

11.4 Agricultural Biomass 279

11.4.1 Corn/Maize 279

11.4.2 Sugarcane 280

11.4.3 Oil Palm 280

11.4.4 Wheat 281

11.4.5 Cassava 282

11.4.6 Coconut 283

11.4.7 Rice 284

11.4.8 Others 284

11.5 Biomass Extraction and Application 285

11.6 Conclusion and Prospect 286

References 286

12 Manufacture of Monomers and Precursors from Plant Biomass 291
Catarina P. Gomes, Amir Bzainia, Ayssata Almeida, Cláudia Martins, Rolando C.S. Dias, and Mário Rui P.F.N. Costa

12.1 Introduction 291

12.2 Industrially Relevant Monomers and Precursors from Plant Biomass 295

12.2.1 Saccharides 295

12.2.2 Ethanol 298

12.2.3 Lactic Acid 300

12.2.4 Itaconic Acid 302

12.2.5 Succinic Acid 302

12.2.6 Sorbitol and Xylitol 303

12.2.7 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural 303

12.2.8 Hydroxy Acids for Poly(Hydroxyalkanoates) 304

12.2.9 Further Chemicals with Practical Relevance 306

12.3 Other Monomers and Precursors Through the Biotechnological Pathway 312

12.4 Other Monomers and Precursors Through the Catalytic Pathway 313

12.5 Conclusion 314

Abbreviations 314

Acknowledgments 315

References 316

13 Chemical Routes for the Transformation of Bio-monomers into Polymers 329
Catarina P. Gomes, Amir Bzainia, Ayssata Almeida, Cláudia Martins, Rolando C.S. Dias, and Mário Rui P.F.N. Costa

13.1 Introduction 329

13.2 Main Chemical Routes for the Transformation of Bio-monomers into Polymers 329

13.2.1 Ring-Opening Polymerization 330

13.2.2 Condensation Polymerization 333

13.2.3 Free Radical Polymerization 336

13.3 Exploitation of Olive Tree and Olive Oil Residues as Feedstock for Biopolymers Production 339

13.3.1 Second Generation Bioethanol and Platform Chemicals for the Polymer Industries from Lignocellulosic Fractions 341

13.3.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates 342

13.3.3 Exploitation of Residual Oils from Olive Mills and Olive Pomace to Get Polymerizable Monomers 343

13.3.4 Polyphenols in Olive Tree Residues for Advanced Functional Polymers 343

13.4 Exploitation of Winemaking Residues for Biopolymers Production 345

13.4.1 Bioethanol 345

13.4.2 Lactic Acid, Xylitol and Furfural 346

13.4.3 Succinic Acid 346

13.4.4 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) 347

13.4.5 Bio-oils from Winemaking Residues for Generation of Polymerizable Monomers 347

13.4.6 Polyphenols in Winery Residues for Advanced Functional Polymers 348

13.5 Conclusion 348

Abbreviations 349

Acknowledgments 350

References 350

14 Manufacture of Polymer Composites from Plant Fibers 363
Md. Reazuddin Repon, Tarekul Islam, Tarikul Islam, and Md. Abdul Alim

14.1 Introduction 363

14.2 Biocomposites 365

14.2.1 Plant-based Natural Fibers 366

14.2.2 Polymer Matrix 367

14.3 Fiber Treatment and Modification 371

14.4 Fabrication of Composites 373

14.5 Mechanical Properties of Micro and Nanopolymer Composites 376

14.6 Biodegradability of Micro and Nano-Polymer Compounds 377

14.7 Potential Application Areas of Micro and Nanopolymer Composites 378

14.8 Conclusion 381

References 382

15 Lignin-Based Composites and Nanocomposites 389
Rubén Teijido, Julia Sanchez-Bodón, Antonio Veloso-Fernández, Leyre Pérez-Álvarez, Ana C. Lopes, Isabel Moreno-Benítez, José L. Vilas-Vilela, and Leire Ruiz-Rubio

15.1 Lignin Introduction 389

15.2 Synthesis of Lignin-Based Nanoparticles 393

15.2.1 Acid-Catalyzed Precipitation 393

15.2.2 Flash Precipitation and Nanoprecipitation 394

15.2.3 Solvent Exchange 395

15.2.4 Water-in-Oil (W/O) Microemulsion Methods 395

15.2.5 Homogenization and Ultrasonication 395

15.3 Lignin Properties and Applications 396

15.3.1 Lignin Nanoparticles–Matrix Interactions 397

15.3.2 High-Temperature Requiring Applications 398

15.3.3 Biomedical Applications 400

15.3.4 Environmental Applications 402

15.3.5 Energy Storage, Catalysis, and Electrochemistry Applications 405

15.3.5.1 Catalysis and Environmental Remediation 405

15.3.5.2 Energy Storage Applications: Electrodes and Supercapacitors 406

15.3.6 Civil Engineering Applications (Construction, Protective Coatings, and Mechanical Reinforcing Applications) 406

15.4 Conclusion and Future Work 407

Acknowledgments 412

References 412

16 Bio Plastics from Biomass 421
Alcides L. Leao, Ivana Cesarino, Milena C. de Souza, Ivan Moroz, and Mohammad Jawaid

16.1 Introduction 421

16.2 Types and Applications of Bioplastics 422

16.3 Global Market 427

16.4 Bioplastics Processing and Applications 429

16.4.1 Polyamides 430

16.4.2 Pp 431

16.4.3 PBAT and PBS 432

16.4.4 Cellulose 432

16.5 Conclusion 434

Acknowledgments 434

References 434

17 Plant-based Materials for Energy Application 441
Patrick U. Okoye, Diego R. Lobato-Peralta, José L. Alemán-Ramirez, Estefania Duque-Brito, Dulce M. Arias, Jude A. Okolie, and Pathiyamattom J. Sebastian

17.1 Introduction 441

17.2 Plant-based Lignocellulosic Biomass 442

17.2.1 Composition and Extraction of Lignocellulosic Components 442

17.2.2 Conversion of Plant-based Biomass Into Activated Carbon 443

17.2.3 Types of Activation 444

17.3 Reactor Configuration 445

17.4 Plant-based Carbon Materials for Energy Storage Purposes 447

17.4.1 Supercapacitors 448

17.4.2 Hydrogen Storage 449

17.4.3 Microbial Fuel Cells 450

17.4.4 Plant-based Catalysts for Biodiesel Synthesis 451

17.4.4.1 Green Heterogeneous Catalysts 452

17.4.4.2 Development and Activation of Green Heterogeneous Catalysts 452

17.5 Challenges 456

17.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 456

References 457

18 Plant Biomass for Water Purification Applications 465
Humayra A. Himu, Tanvir M. Dip, Ayesha S. Emu, A T M F. Ahmed, and Md. Syduzzaman

18.1 Introduction 465

18.2 Sources of Plant Biomass Used for Water Purification 469

18.2.1 Agricultural Peel-Based Biomass 471

18.2.2 Leaf-Based Biomass 471

18.2.3 Stems and Roots-Based Biomass 472

18.2.4 Powder and Dust-Based Biomass 472

18.2.5 Floating Plants, Beds, and Wetlands 473

18.3 Modification of Plant Biomass 473

18.3.1 Physical Modification 473

18.3.2 Chemical Modification 474

18.3.2.1 Chemically Modified Plant Biomass for Water Purification 474

18.3.2.2 Three-Dimensional Porous Cake-Like Biosorbent 474

18.3.3 Thermochemical Modification 477

18.3.3.1 Plant Biomass-Derived Biochar 477

18.3.3.2 Plant Biomass-Derived AC 477

18.4 Plant Biomass-Based Water Purification Processes/Techniques 479

18.4.1 Adsorbent-Based Process 480

18.4.2 Solar Steam Generation (SSG) Device for Desalination and Filtration 481

18.4.3 Biosorption 482

18.4.4 Membrane Filtration 485

18.5 Purification Mechanism 486

18.5.1 For Dye Removal 486

18.5.2 For Heavy Metal Removal 487

18.5.3 For Other Compounds Removal 489

18.6 Sector-Based Water Purification 489

18.6.1 Drinking Water 491

18.6.2 Industrial Wastewater 493

18.6.3 Domestic Wastewater 494

18.6.4 Agricultural Wastewater 494

18.7 Regeneration and Reuse 495

18.8 Limitations, Challenges, and Future Outlooks 497

18.9 Conclusion 498

References 498

19 Sustainable Biocomposite-Based Biomass for Aerospace Applications 517
Mazlan Norkhairunnisa, Tay Chai Hua, Farid Bajuri, Izzat N. Yaacob, and Kamarul A. Ahmad

19.1 Introduction 517

19.2 Bioresin 518

19.2.1 Biodegradability and Properties of Sustainable Bioresin 519

19.3 Biocomposite 523

19.3.1 Design of Biocomposite for Aerospace Application Reinforcement 524

19.3.1.1 Plant-Based Fiber 524

19.3.1.2 Animal-Based Fiber 524

19.3.1.3 Biofillers 525

19.3.2 Material Selection and Its Properties in Aerospace Applications 525

19.3.3 Biocomposite Performances and Applications in Aerospace Structure Design 526

19.3.3.1 Advantageous and Disadvantageous of Composite in Aerospace Applications 526

19.3.3.2 Application of Biocomposite in Aircraft Structure 527

19.3.4 Sustainability and Environmental Effects 528

19.4 Summary 529

References 530

20 Biomass-based Food Packaging 537
Asif Hafeez, Madeha Jabbar, Yasir Nawab, and Khubab Shaker

20.1 Food Packaging Materials 537

20.2 Food Packaging Material Perquisites 539

20.2.1 Food Packaging Properties 540

20.2.1.1 Thermal Properties 540

20.2.1.2 Mechanical Properties 540

20.2.1.3 Chemical Reactivity 540

20.2.1.4 Optical Properties 541

20.2.1.5 Gas Barrier Properties 541

20.2.1.6 Moisture Barrier Properties 541

20.2.1.7 Durability 541

20.2.2 Packaged Product Characteristics 542

20.2.3 Individual Package Properties 542

20.2.4 Storage and Distribution Conditions 543

20.3 Environmental Impact of Conventional Food Packaging 543

20.4 Sources of Biomass 545

20.5 Processing of Biomass to Food Packaging 545

20.5.1 Thermoplasticization of Biomass 546

20.5.2 Film Blowing 547

20.5.3 Foaming Technology 547

20.6 Food Packaging from Agricultural Biomass 547

20.6.1 Rice Straw 548

20.6.2 Wheat Straw 549

20.6.3 Sugarcane Bagasse 549

20.7 Conclusion 550

References 550

21 Recycling Plant Biomass and Life Cycle Assessment in Circular Economy Systems 557
Joan Nyika, Megersa Dinka, and Adeolu Adesoji Adediran

21.1 Introduction 557

21.2 Process of Recycling Plant Biomass 558

21.2.1 Gasification of Plant Biomass 559

21.2.2 Pyrolysis of Plant Biomass 560

21.2.3 Combustion of Plant Biomass 561

21.2.4 Biological Conversion of Plant Biomass 562

21.3 Processes of Life Cycle Assessment 562

21.4 Literature Review on Life Cycle Assessment for Plant Biomass Recycling 564

21.5 Conclusion 568

References 568

22 The Handling, Storage, and Preservation of Plant Biomass 575
Joan Nyika, Megersa Dinka, and Adeolu A. Adediran

22.1 Introduction 575

22.2 Characteristics of Plant Biomass 576

22.3 Handling of Plant Biomass 578

22.4 Storage and Preservation of Plant Biomass 580

22.4.1 Dry Storage Systems 581

22.4.2 Wet Storage Systems 583

22.4.3 Preservation of Plant Biomass 584

22.5 Conclusion 586

References 586

Index 591

Seiko Jose is a scientist at Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute, Avikanagar, Rajasthan, India.

Sabu Thomas is the Director of Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India.

Lata Samant is a research scholar at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, Uttarakhand, India.

Sneha Sabu Mathew is a research scholar at Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala, India.